Preface xxvii Acknowledgments xxxiii Foreword xxxvii Part 1 Water Reuse: An Introduction 1 1 Water Issues: Current Status and the Role of Water Reclamation and Reuse 3 Working Terminology 4 1-1 Definition of Terms 6 1-2 Principles of Sustainable Water Resources Management 6 The principle of sustainability 7 Working definitions of sustainability 7 Challenges for sustainability 7 Criteria for sustainable water resources management 7 Environmental ethics 13 1-3 Current and Potential Future Global Water Shortages 15 Impact of current and projected world population 15 Potential global water shortages 19 Water scarcity 19 Potential regional water shortages in the continental United States 20 1-4 The Important Role of Water Reclamation and Reuse 23 Types of water reuse 24 Integrated water resources planning 24 Personnel needs/sustainable engineering 27 Treatment and technology needs 27 Infrastructure and planning issues 28 1-5 Water Reclamation and Reuse and Its Future 30 Implementation hurdles 31 Public support 31 Acceptance varies depending on opportunity and necessity 31 Public water supply from polluted water sources 31 Advances in water reclamation technologies 31 Challenges for water reclamation and reuse 32 Problems and Discussion Topics 32 References 33 2 Water Reuse: Past and Current Practices 37 Working Terminology 38 2-1 Evolution of Water Reclamation and Reuse 39 Historical development prior to 1960 39 Era of water reclamation and reuse in the United States-post-1960 41 2-2 Impact of State and Federal Statutes on Water Reclamation and Reuse 45 The Clean Water Act 45 The Safe Drinking Water Act 46 2-3 Water Reuse--Current Status in the United States 46 Withdrawal of water from surface and groundwater sources 46 Availability and reuse of treated wastewater 46 Milestone water reuse projects and research studies 47 2-4 Water Reuse in California: A Case Study 47 Experience with water reuse 47 Current water reuse status 48 Water reuse policies and recycling regulations 51 Potential future uses of reclaimed water 52 2-5 Water Reuse in Florida: A Case Study 53 Experience with water reuse 54 Current water reuse status 54 Water reuse policies and recycling regulations 56 Potential future uses of reclaimed water 56 2-6 Water Reuse in Other Parts of the World 58 Significant developments worldwide 58 The World Health Organization's water reuse guidelines 59 Water reuse in developing countries 59 2-7 Summary and Lessons Learned 63 Problems and Discussion Topics 65 References 66 Part 2 Health and Environmental Concerns in Water Reuse 71 3 Characteristics of Municipal Wastewater and Related Health and Environmental Issues 73 Working Terminology 74 3-1 Wastewater in Public Water Supplies-de facto Potable Reuse 77 Presence of treated wastewater in public water supplies 78 Impact of the presence of treated wastewater on public water supplies 78 3-2 Introduction to Waterborne Diseases and Health Issues 78 Important historical events 79 Waterborne disease 80 Etiology of waterborne disease 81 3-3 Waterborne Pathogenic Microorganisms 83 Terminology conventions for organisms 83 Log removal 83 Bacteria 83 Protozoa 87 Helminths 89 Viruses 89 3-4 Indicator Organisms 92 Characteristics of an ideal indicator organism 92 The coliform group bacteria 93 Bacteriophages 93 Other indicator organisms 94 3-5 Occurrence of Microbial Pathogens in Untreated and Treated Wastewater and in the Environment 94 Pathogens in untreated wastewater 94 Pathogens in treated wastewater 97 Pathogens in the environment 102 Survival of pathogenic organisms 102 3-6 Chemical Constituents in Untreated and Treated Wastewater 103 Chemical constituents in untreated wastewater 103 Constituents added through domestic commercial and industrial usage 104 Chemical constituents in treated wastewater 108 Formation of disinfection byproducts(DBPs) 113 Comparison of treated wastewater to natural water 114 Use of surrogate parameters 115 3-7 Emerging Contaminants in Water and Wastewater 117 Endocrine disruptors and pharmaceutically active chemicals 117 Some specific constituents with emerging concern 118 New and reemerging microorganisms 120 3-8 Environmental Issues 120 Effects on soils and plants 121 Effects on surface water and groundwater 121 Effects on ecosystems 121 Effects on development and land use 122 Problems and Discussion Topics 122 References 124 4 Water Reuse Regulations and Guidelines 131 Working Terminology 132 4-l Understanding Regulatory Terminology 134 Standard and criterion 134 Standard versus criterion 134 Regulation 135 Difference between regulations and uidelines 135 Water reclamation and reuse 135 4-2 Development of Standards, Regulations,and Guidelines for Water Reuse 135 Basis for water quality standards 136 Development of water reuse regulations and guidelines 136 The regulatory process 139 4-3 General Regulatory Considerations Related to Water Reclamation and Reuse 139 Constituents and physical properties of concern in wastewater 139 Wastewater treatment and water quality considerations 142 Reclaimed water quality monitoring 145 Storage requirements 146 Reclaimed water application rates 147 Aerosols and windborne sprays 147 4-4 Regulatory Considerations for Specific Water Reuse Applications 149 Agricultural irrigation 149 Landscape irrigation 150 Dual distribution systems and in-building uses 151 Impoundments 152 Industrial uses 153 Other nonpotable uses 153 Groundwater recharge 154 4-5 Regulatory Considerations for Indirect Potable Reuse 155 Use of the most protected water source 155 Influence of the two water acts 155 Concerns for trace chemical constituents and pathogens 156 Assessment of health risks 157 4-6 State Water Reuse Regulations 157 Status of water reuse regulations and guidelines 158 Regulations and guidelines for specific reuse applications 158 Regulatory requirements for nonpotable uses of reclaimed water 165 State regulations for indirect potable reuse 167 4-7 U.S. EPA Guidelines for Water Reuse 169 Disinfection requirements 169 Microbial limits 178 Control measures 178 Recommendations for indirect potable reuse 178 4-8 World Health Organization Guidelines for Water Reuse 179 1989 WHO guidelines for agriculture and aquaculture 180 The Stockholm framework 180 Disability adjusted life years 180 Concept of tolerable (acceptable)risk 181 Tolerable microbial risk in water 181 2006 WHO guidelines for the safe use of astewater in agriculture 182 4-9 Future Directions in Regulations and Guidelines 184 Continuing development of state standards, regulations, and guidelines 184 Technical advances in treatment processes 184 Information needs 184 Problems and Discussion Topics 185 References 187 5 Health Risk Analysis in Water Reuse Applications 191 Working Terminology 192 5-1 Risk Analysis: An Overview 193 Historical development of risk assessment 194 Objectives and applications of human health risk assessment 194 Elements of risk analysis 194 Risk analysis: definitions and concepts 196 5-2 Health Risk Assessment 197 Hazard identification 198 Dose-response assessment 198 Dose-response models 200 Exposure assessment 204 Risk characterization 204 Comparison of human health and ecological risk assessment 205 5-3 Risk Management 205 5-4 Risk Communication 206 5-5 Tools and Methods Used in Risk Assessment 207 Concepts from public health 207 Concepts from epidemiology 208 Concepts from toxicology 209 National toxicology program cancer bioassay 213 Ecotoxicology: environmental effects 214 5-6 Chemical Risk Assessment 215 Safety and risk determination in regulation of chemical agents 215 Risks from potential nonthreshold toxicants 220 Risk considerations 224 Chemical risk assessment summary 225 5-7 Microbial Risk Assessment 225 Infectious disease paradigm for microbial risk assessment 225 Microbial risk assessment methods 227 Static microbial risk assessment models 227 Dynamic microbial risk assessment models 229 Selecting a microbial risk model 232 5-8 Application of Microbial Risk Assessment in Water Reuse Applications 234 Microbial risk assessment employing a static model 234 Microbial risk assessment employing dynamic models 239 Risk assessment for water reuse from enteric viruses 244 5-9 Limitations in Applying Risk Assessment to Water Reuse Applications 249 Relative nature of risk assessment 249 Inadequate consideration of secondary infections 249 Limited dose-response data 250 Problems and Discussion Topics 250 References 251 Part 3 Technologies and Systems for Water Reclamation and Reuse 255 Part 4 Water Reuse Applications 927 Part 5 Implementing Water Reuse 1379 Indexes
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